Clusters of galaxies emerge at dense peaks in the vast cosmic web of large-scale structure that threads the universe. The non-linear dynamics governing their formation has been extensively studied using computational N-body and gas dynamical techniques, and many population properties are now well understood (or, at least, well calibrated) from this first-principles approach. The links between cosmological parameters and cluster population statistics are now strong enough to motivate large observational programs at optical, sub-mm and X-ray wavelengths. In this talk, I will review progress in modeling clusters as multi-component, gravitational systems and then address the role that cluster studies should play in illuminating dark sector physics over the coming decades.